A Full Breakdown of the Science of Reading Components

Although there has been progress on science of reading initiatives, the 2024 Nation’s Report Card (NAEP) shows reading scores dropped significantly for students in both fourth and eighth grades. More than a third of eighth grade students are not even reading at the NAEP Basic level—a greater percentage than ever before.

According to an article in K-12 Dive, only one state—Louisiana—saw an increase in fourth grade reading scores between 2019 and 2024. In 2019, Louisiana’s fourth grade reading scores ranked 50th in the nation, and now they rank 16th, making the biggest leap among all states. For the past several years, Louisiana educators have made a significant effort to shift instruction to the science of reading to boost literacy and close reading gaps. 

Louisiana State Superintendent of Education Cade Brumley told Crisis in the Classroom (CITC) he is "not surprised at all” that Louisiana students saw improvements. He noted the results came as Louisiana administrators work to "go back to the basics," by properly training teachers and being responsive to parent needs.

While the latest NAEP test scores are disappointing, research shows 95% of students can learn to read proficiently when taught a curriculum based on the science of reading. So far, lawmakers in 40 states and the District of Columbia have passed laws or implemented new policies related to evidence-based reading instruction. State officials hope these mandates will shift literacy instruction, helping more students become proficient readers. 

What is the Science of Reading?

Breaking down the science of reading into a set of components might seem like the most logical way to begin understanding it, but this actually reflects a misunderstanding of the science of reading at the highest level. 

There are no components to the science of reading simply because it is not an approach or philosophy. Instead, the phrase “science of reading” represents decades of gold-standard research demonstrating the science behind how the human brain learns to read.

Many people think of the science of reading as the skills and instructional methods that have been proven effective in teaching reading. Decoding is a key component of literacy, and the science of reading is the body of research that demonstrates the importance of explicitly teaching this skill.

In this article, we look at how the body of research that makes up the science of reading can be more easily understood through these four frameworks and models, which are all interconnected:

• The Five Pillars of Reading Instruction

• Scarborough’s Reading Rope

• The Simple View of Reading

• Structured Literacy

These approaches each have their own components and concepts to help us understand how we learn to read. When educators understand these instructional frameworks and models, they can effectively implement evidence-based practices in their classrooms and help all of their students find reading success.

What are the Five Pillars of Reading Instruction?

The five pillars of reading instruction, also known as the five pillars of early literacy, are a set of key components, developed by the National Reading Panel, essential for reading proficiency. 

These pillars include phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension. Each component plays a crucial role in developing strong reading skills, and educators who understand and effectively teach these pillars are increasing the chances their students learn how to read proficiently.

Research in cognitive psychology, linguistics, and neuroscience has provided a wealth of evidence-based strategies and practices for developing each of the five pillars of reading. Understanding the science behind these pillars can help educators design effective instruction that supports students in becoming strong readers. 

1. Phonemic awareness

Phonemic awareness is the ability to identify, manipulate, and distinguish individual sounds (phonemes) in spoken words. It involves understanding that words consist of separate sounds and being able to hear, blend, segment, and manipulate those sounds. 

Research from the NIH's National Reading Panel has shown phonemic awareness instruction is most effective when students are taught to manipulate phonemes with letters, when it explicitly focuses on one or two types of phoneme manipulations (rather than multiple), and when students are taught in small groups. A more recent 2022 meta-analysis of preschool through first grade students found that phonemic awareness instruction was moderately effective. The study also said that as educators plan for effective phonemic awareness instruction, results indicate computer programs and parents can be valuable resources to build skills for students to supplement teacher instruction. 

2. Phonics

Phonics refers to the relationship between letters and sounds in language. It involves understanding how letters represent sounds and using that knowledge to decode written words during reading and encode words during writing. 

Many people believe the science of reading is solely based on phonics. However, phonics is just one piece of a very large and complex puzzle. Research shows systematic phonics instruction “provides beginning readers, at-risk readers, disabled readers, and low-achieving readers” with a higher chance of learning how to read proficiently than other forms of instruction.

3. Fluency

Fluency refers to the ability to read text accurately, quickly, and with proper expression. It involves automaticity in word recognition, comprehension, and prosody. 

A study published by APA PsycNet shows students with strong oral fluency skills are more likely to succeed in other areas of the literacy acquisition process. This is because fluency serves as a bridge between reading or decoding words and comprehending what is being read. Another study that looked at fluency development in first through fourth grades found that “text reading fluency is an important, independent construct to consider in reading development, and it makes an independent contribution to reading comprehension over and above word reading fluency and listening comprehension.” 

4. Vocabulary

Vocabulary refers to the words students must know to communicate effectively through reading and writing. It includes understanding the meaning of words and how they are used in different contexts.

5. Comprehension

Reading comprehension is the ability to understand and make meaning from what has been read. It involves using background knowledge, decoding skills, vocabulary, and critical thinking strategies to construct meaning from text. 

Reading comprehension itself is the application of multiple skill components and can be seen as the primary goal of reading. The skills needed for reading comprehension can be broken down with the Simple View of Reading and Scarborough’s Reading Rope.

The Simple View of Reading & Scarborough’s Reading Rope Explained

The Simple View of Reading and Scarborough’s Reading Rope are two widely recognized models that explain the complex reading process. While both models are similar in that they identify different components that contribute to reading proficiency, they differ in how they conceptualize and prioritize these components. 

Both models serve as foundational ways of understanding the science of reading research explaining how the human brain learns to read.

The Simple View of Reading (SVR)

According to Philip Gough and William Tunmer’s (1986) Simple View of Reading (SVR), reading comprehension is conceptualized through the combination of two skills: Word recognition and language comprehension. 

The model is represented as a multiplication equation, showing that neither of these concepts is sufficient on its own. A lack of understanding of one concept could lead to overall reading failure. This is why it is so crucial for students to develop both. 

In the SVR, decoding consists of these skill components: 

• Phonology 
• Orthography
• Morphology

Language comprehension consists of these skill components: 

• Syntax
• Semantics
• Pragmatics
• Discourse

Struggling with any of these subcomponents can lead to overall reading comprehension struggles.

Scarborough’s Reading Rope

Scarborough’s “Rope” Model from Handbook of Early Literacy Research, © 2001 by Guilford Press.

With a slightly different breakdown of skill components, Scarborough’s Reading Rope offers a visual representation of the different components that need to be woven together for skilled reading. 

These strands are separated into two categories: Word recognition and language comprehension. These two sections (the same main components represented in the SVR) are further broken down into smaller “strands” that represent the different skills that go into each category. All of these strands are critical for skilled reading and are dependent upon one another.

Word Recognition is a combination of:

• Phonological awareness

• Decoding

• Sight recognition

Of these three, decoding is the element that helps bring everything together regarding word recognition. Decoding is the process of linking printed words or letters on the page to their spoken equivalents. 

A student’s ability to decode words begins with their understanding of the language sound system. This understanding leads to their grasp of the writing system through phonology, orthography, and morphology.

Language comprehension is the other necessary component of reading comprehension. It makes up the top half of Scarborough’s Reading Rope. Language comprehension requires the combination of:

• Background knowledge

• Vocabulary

• Language structures

• Verbal reasoning

• Literacy knowledge

While these skill components differ from the SVR’s underpinning components of semantics, pragmatics, syntax, and discourse, they both comprise the skills needed to understand language and sentence structure.

Where Does Structured Literacy Come In?

Structured Literacy (SL) is a phrase coined by the International Dyslexia Association® (IDA), and it refers to a specific way of teaching students how to read. This teaching method has been shown to support all students, regardless of background or skill level. These parameters define the SL approach to teaching reading:

Explicit

This means concepts and skills introduced to students are directly taught and practiced. Educators should not assume students learn literacy principles independently or through exposure alone. 

The aim is to provide ample guidance and practice to help students acquire new literacy concepts. It is essential to give immediate feedback to minimize the possibility of students learning and practicing concepts incorrectly.

Systematic and Cumulative

Each concept students are taught should build on top of the previous concept they learned, and their teacher should explain how each new lesson fits into the whole. New skills should be presented in a logically ordered way, progressing from simple to complex. 

Each new concept builds upon the previous one, and teachers explain how each lesson connects to previous ones. The goal is to enable students to gradually develop automatic reading skills, allowing them to move from learning to read to reading to learning.

Hands-On, Engaging, and Multimodal

Structured Literacy recognizes students learn best when they are engaged and active in the learning process. This combines listening, speaking, reading, and writing, which in turn develops a student’s language comprehension skills and fosters multimodal learning.

The goal is to foster language comprehension skills by allowing students to experience learning in a more interactive and engaging way.

Diagnostic and Responsive

This means educators should be responsive to the needs of individual students. They should continuously assess student progress and adjust their teaching accordingly. Pacing, presentation, and practice for new concepts should be adapted to individual students’ skill levels and understanding, ensuring students who need more time and guidance receive that support. 

By being diagnostic and responsive, Structured Literacy ensures every student receives the support and guidance they need to develop literacy skills effectively.

How Does Science of Reading-Based Instruction Better Support Student Literacy?

A Structured Literacy approach will teach the skill components identified by the National Reading Panel, the Simple View of Reading, and Scarborough's Reading Rope in an explicit, systematic, and responsive way that effectively helps all students learn to read.

Test Scores

Students who have a deep, foundational knowledge of necessary reading skills are more likely to see success on assessments. Since they can use decoding and language skills to comprehend any text they engage with, they can successfully understand and respond to questions on various subjects, not just within the English Language Arts sphere. 

Teacher Competence

Teachers who have training in the science of reading and aligned instructional practices can ensure students receive the direct, explicit, and cumulative instruction they need to achieve reading comprehension. Additionally, they can scaffold learning for students requiring additional support on specific skills, as teachers can recognize where learning opportunities are.

What Are the Benefits of Science of Reading-Based Instruction?

The primary benefit of science of reading-based instruction is providing all students with explicit, direct, and cumulative teaching proven to help most learners achieve skilled reading. 

Components like phonics, vocabulary, or syntax are a small piece of science of reading-based instruction. As an ever-growing body of research, the science of reading continues to deepen our understanding of how we learn to read. 

The five pillars of early literacy, Scarborough’s Reading Rope, the Simple View of Reading, and Structured Literacy are all derived from science of reading research. Educators can use the components within these frameworks and models to inform their teaching practices. By including explicit instruction in reading skills, from phonemic awareness to vocabulary and semantics, teachers can make sure all students have the opportunity to achieve reading success.

How To Get Science of Reading Internal Buy-In

For educators using different instructional methods, shifting to a science of reading-based approach can cause wariness. District administrators should approach this shift with grace, support, and kindness. Explain why the shift is necessary, what it means for building-level staff, and what the implementation plan looks like. 

School Administrators

For school administrators, including principals, consider offering professional learning opportunities about the science of reading specifically designed for educational leaders. Provide documents and talking points to share with community stakeholders to ensure not just teachers but parents and community members understand what the science of reading is and why it’s vital for your students. 

Teachers

For teachers, take time to address questions and concerns that might arise regarding an instructional shift. Many teachers did not receive training in evidence-based practices and may feel unprepared to make this instructional change. Ensure they receive effective professional learning that imparts the necessary background knowledge and instructional practices they need for success in the classroom. 

To deepen your understanding of how schools have successfully transitioned to the science of reading, watch this three-part webinar series and gain valuable insights from district leaders about their evidence-based instructional approaches, professional learning investments, and frameworks for capacity building.